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L E O N A R D O Florence, 1452-82 Despite the fact that only about a dozen paintings can be attributed to him with any certainty, Leonardo da Vmci is remembered as one of the greatest artists of the Renaissance. Much of what has been written about Leonardo stemmed initially from the writings of Giorgio Vasari [1511-74), whose Le Vite dei pit- tori sculteri et architetti italiani was written some fifty years after Leonardos death. Vasari began his biography by saying: Occasionally heaven sends us someone who is not only human but divine . . . Subsequent biographies, particularly those written in the nineteenth-century milieu of Romanticism, or following Freudian psychoanalytical ndenclesm the twentieth century, have all added to the 'legend' of Leonardo. In his own time Leonardo was appreciated by a mere handful of his contemporaries. In 1452, in a small village called Anchiano near to the Tuscan town of Vinci, Leonardo was born to Ser Piero the 'Ser' before his name denoted the traditional family and a woman variously called Chatena or Caterina. Caterina's origins are unclear but she seems to have been regarded in rather a low light; in the same year that Leonardo was born, his father married another woman, Albiera di Giovanni Amadori. Ser Piero was in fact to marry four times, and had eleven other children by his third and fourth wives. By the time these children were born, Leonardo was already in his early twenties. In the municipal archive in Florence the documentary evidence [discovered only in 1930 by Emil Moeller) of Leonardo's birth reads: 'Born a grandson, son of Ser Piero, my son on the 15th of April.' This notice was written by grandfather Antonio and confirmed that Leonardo was accepted as a member of the family. The entry continues with a list of the people present at Leonardo's baptism, evidence that he was also accepted by the community as a Christian and a member of the Catholic Church. It has been said that Antonio hedged his bets: many of those present at the baptism were either tenants on his land or in some way in debt to him. Nevertheless Leonardo was brought up by his mother Caterina for the first four years of his life, until she herself married a local man, Attacabrigi di Piero del Vacca, who was by trade a kiln builder. Leonardo then moved into the grander house in Vinci belonging to his father, where he grew up as an only child since his father's first two wives bore him no children. These facts have been deduced by historians from the fact thatgrandfather Antonio first registered Leonardo as a dependent living with the family in his income tax return for 1457. Antonio died in 1469, when Leonardo was aged about 16 or 17, and the family moved to another house in Vinci. They also rented the ground floor of a house in the Piazza di San Firenze, close to the Bargello, or prison, in Florence. Leonardo's father was now notary to the Signoria, the ruling council of Florence. According to Vasari, it was because Ser Piero was a friend of Andrea di Cione, better known to us as Andrea del Verrocchio (c.1435-88), that Leonardo entered his studio. Verrocchio was Florence's leading painter, goldsmith and sculptor, famed for his exquisite craftsmanship. It was the usual practice at this time for boys to be appointed to a bottegha or workshop after their preliminary schooling had been completed around the age of 13. Apprenticeships lasted around six years with the newcomer progressing from pupil, cleaning brushes, preparing pigments and generally fetching and carrying, to assistant, who had learnt all the techniques and tricks of the trade from his master and was able to take a hand in painting commissions where the contract between the master and client allowed. Legend would have it that Leonardo was some 'boy-genius'. In fact, however, his schooling was modest and he was largely self-taught. He himself was acutely aware that he was 'unlettered' unable, that is, to write in Ciceronian prose, and because of this difficulty with Latin, Leonardo's reading, initially at least, was largely confined to works translated into Tuscan Italian. This deprived him of access to the new Humanistic works written in Latin at the educated courts of Italy. Instead, Leonardo compensated for his academic shortcomings by relying on his own sensory experiences. Rather than the usual six years in Verrocchio's studio, Leonardo remained with his master for nine years. During the 1470s he would have been training and working alongside a number of other young assistants: Pietro Perugino (c.1450-1523), Lorenzo di Credi [1459- 1537), Domenico Ghirlandaio [1449- 94), Francesco Botticini [1446-97) and Cosimo Rosselli (1439-1507). Verrocchio's studio in Florence was rivaled in its output and talent only by the bottegha run by the brothers Pietro and Ambrosio Pollaiuolo. In all the studios at this time the atmosphere and methods of production were dominated by a communal spirit. A work of art was not yet regarded as the expression of a single personality, and during this period Verrocchio's workshops turned out a variety of work which Leonardo probably had a hand in producing. By 1472 Leonardo's name was inscribed on the roll of the Guild ofSt Luke as a painter: 'Leonardo di Ser Piero da Vinci dipintore.' He was then just 20 years old and, having paid his guild fees, he was entitled to set up his own independent workshop. The guilds acted in a manner similar to trades unions: they were responsible for guidelines for training within each profession, whether law, medicine or the arts. Only when a student had completed the set period for hisinstruction and had mastered the various skills could he join the guild. Leonardo, however, chose to spend at least four more years with his master, during which time he was responsible for a number of projects. As well as probably taking part in arranging pageants for Lorenzo de' Medici and Giuliano de' Medici in 1469 and 1475, Leonardo was also involved in the arrangements for the festivities to welcome Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, to Florence in 1471. It is also believed that Leonardo was asked to paint a watercolor cartoon for a tapestry representing the Fall in Paradise, to be woven in Flanders as a gift for the King of Portugal. It seems, however, that the tapestry never reached the weaving stage. In addition to two paintings of the Virgin attributed to Leonardo, the Benois Madonna and the Madonna and. Child with a Vase of Flowers, which are believed to date from this period in Verrocchio's workshop, Leonardo no doubt assisted his master with a number of other works then in hand: the gilded copper ball for the lantern over the dome of the Cathedral in 1471; the tomb ofPiero de' Medici for the sacristy of the Medici church of San Lorenzo in 1472, and the bronze David, for the town hall in 1476, for which many believe Leonardo was the model. According to Vasari, Leonardo was working with Verrocchio on The Baptism of Christ for the church of San Salvi when, as the story goes, Verrocchio saw his young assistant's work and promptly gave up painting because Leonardo was more capable than he was. It is more likely that, in such a busy commercial workshop, the master was able safely to entrust painting commissions to his assistant, while he himself concentrated on the more public and profitable sculptural commissions. The Baptism of Christ is traditionally accepted as Leonardo's earliest surviving painted work. From the same period [August 1473) is his earliest dated drawing, a landscape depicting the valley of the river Arno. These two works are in fact related: a study of the drawing, particularly the background features of the mountains and lakes with their atmospherically rendered aerial perspective, leaves no doubt that Leonardo was responsible for the background painting in The Baptism of Christ. This is especially evident when the background features are compared with other natural features in the painting, such as the palm tree on the left and the rocks in the right foreground, which are painted in a much more conventional manner. Vasari records that Leonardo worked on the painting but, even without documentary evidence, a comparison of the two angels suggests that they were painted by two different hands, and the left-hand one is accepted as by Leonardo. Nevertheless the monks of San Salvi appear not to have noticed any discernible differences and the painting passed into their hands. With the Benois Madonna, Leonardo tound a formula that he was to apply again in the figure of the Virgin in the Louvre Virgin and Child with St Anne about 30 years later, and that was to be influential on a number of later artists. The Virgin's body is placed in a three-quarter view to the right, with the right leg extended forward and the left bent back to support the figure of the Christ Child. The figures are solidly modeled, as is the drapery which billowsout from the Virgin's hips. The overall effect is enhanced by the strong light which falls from the top left to the bot- tom right across the figures, with a subsidiary soft light brought in from the window in the background. Preliminary drawings - the Madonna and Child with a Cat drawings could well be early studies — as well as other drawings of the period show that achieving this sense of volume was one of Leonardo's chief aims. A second painting, the Madonna and Child with a Vase of Flowers, is sometimes associated with the 'finished' Madonna which Leonardo listed as one of his works in an inventory of his possessions in 1482, when he left Florence for Milan. There is, however, no consensus that this painting is in fact by Leonardo. It could be that Leonardo began it but that it was completed by a fellow pupil such as Lorenzo di Credi. As we shall see, it was not unusual for Leonardo to leave works unfinished. While Leonardo's part in painting the Baptism of Christ has been accepted since around 1510, it was only in 1869 that the painting of the Annunciation was finally attributed to him. The painting came from the monastery of San Bartolomeo at Monteolivieto near Florence and was originally ascribed to Ghirlandaio, a contemporary of Leonardo's and a fellow apprentice in Verrocchio's studio. Another theory has it that the Annunciation was begun by Ghirlandaio and completed by Leonardo, although this thesis is somewhat contradicted by the existence of a drawing by Leonardo of the right sleeve of the angel, complete with the fluttering ribbon. In addition there are two other drawings which are related, but differ in too many small details for them to be considered as direct studies for the painting. One of these is the finished drawing of A Lily such as the one held by the archangel. The other is a study of drapery similar to that worn by the Virgin. The drapery drawing is an example of the studies which Leonardo continued to make throughout his career, and which Vasari describes as having been taken from clay models draped in plaster - soaked cloths. The subject of the painting is the annunciation to the Virgin by the Angel Gabriel of her unique destiny , as detailed in Luke 1, 26 - 38. The figures are set in the enclosed courtyard garden of a Florentine villa.Again certain features seem to have been drawn from the works of Verrocchio , in particular the base of the lectern which recalls Verrocchio's decoration of the Medici tomb in San Lorenzo , and the rigid perspective of the building and the pavement , which is also to be found in Verrochio's Madonna and Child of 1468, now in the National Gallery of Scotland. The landscape background, however , is Leonardoesque, with its misty mountains and lakes stretching into infinity. This background looks forward to both the Madonna of The Rocks and the Mona Lisa while the flower-strewn garden is a foretaste of the vegetation in the Leda. The treatment of the plantlife in the Annunciation also reflects Leonardo's interest in botany; the inventory of items in his possession which he made around 1482 states that he had drawings of many flowers from nature'. It also serves to remind us of the volume of Leonardo's works that have been lost , since the bulk of his surviving botanical studies are related to the years 1508 and after , when he was working on the Leda theme. The Annunciation can be dated by Vincian scholars , from the evidence of style and from the style of its associated drawings, to around 1473, and it must be assumed that Leonardo began work on the Portrait ofGinevra de' Bend soon after this date. Such portraits of Florentine women were frequently commissioned on the occasion of their marriage, and we know from documentary evidence that Ginevra was married to Luigi di Bernardo Niccolini in January 1474. However doubt has always surrounded this painting, which only came to light in 1733 in the collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein. Vasari describes Leonardo painting a portrait of Ginevra after his return to Florence, between 1500 and 1506, but by this time Ginevra would have been in her forties and the portrait is of a much younger woman. Nevertheless the painting is very accomplished, especially when compared to the Annunciation. Recent research has identified the device on the reverse of the panel as the personal seal of Bernardo Bembo, the Venetian ambassador to Florence in 1475-76 and 1478-80. The close but platonic relationship between Ginevra and Bembo has long been recognized, and was even celebrated in its day by the poets Alessandro Braccesi and Christoforo Landino. While there is no definite proof linking Leonardo and Bembo [supposing Bembo to be the commissioner of the portrait), Bembo was infact a friend of Lorenzo de' Medici, one of Verrocchio's major patrons. It is not therefore impossible that the Venetian ambassador commissioned the portrait via the studio. Further assessment of the portrait is complicated by the fact that it has lost about a quarter of its original height due to cropping of the lower edge: part of Bembo's device is missing. There is, how- ever, a magnificent study of a pair of woman's hands done in silverpoint which would fit very well onto the portrait. Although the 1482 inventory mentions various portraits, no item on the list has been firmly linked with the Ginevra portrait. It seems to be the sole surviving secular painting from Leonardo's first Florentine period. In the spring of 1476 Leonardo was living in Verrocchio's
house. On 8 April a note was dropped in the tamburo, a box outside the
Palazzo Vecchio into which Florentines could place accusations, whether
signed or anonymous. This unsigned note accused Leonardo and three other
young men of engaging in homosexual acts with a seventeen-year-old artist's
model, Jacopo Saltarelli. Although no witnesses ever came for- ward, the
matter was serious enough to There has been much speculation about Leonardo's sexual proclivities. Two barely legible lines, from a sheet dating from 1478 in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, of studies of heads and machines, contribute to the thesis that Leonardo was homosexual: 'Fioravante di Domenico ... in Florence is my most cherished companion, as though he were my ..." Writing some years after the initial accusation, Leonardo recalled an incident in connection with a representation of the infant Christ: 'When I made a Christ Child, you put me in prison. Now if I represent Him grown up you will treat me worse.' The following statement appeared in Vasari's first edition of his Lives but was suppressed in the second: 'Leonardo was of so heretical a cast, that he conformed to no religion whatsoever . . .' More recently the nature of Leonardo's sexuality was further discussed and explored by Sigmund Freud in his book Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of Childhood. In a discussion on the flight of birds, Leonardo made the note: Among the first recollections of my childhood it seemed to me that, as I lay in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth with its tail and struck me several times with its tail between my lips. In Freud's analysis he unfortunately translated nibbio (kite) as 'vulture', and based his theory on the fact that in Egyptian hieroglyphics 'vulture' and 'mother' were both represented by the same sign, since they were phonetically linked: both were pronounced 'mut'. Later psychosexual analysts, anxious to shed light on the meaning of the smile of the Mona Lisa, or even on some of the drawings that Leonardo made of his own right hand, have somehow been able to see the outline of Freud's vulture in the drapery of the Virgin's cloak in the Louvre Virgin and Child with St Anne and a Lamb . While many now accept Leonardo's homosexuality, few are
probably aware of his vegetarianism. He did in fact believe that plant
life affords sufficient nutrients for man, and encouraged his contemporaries
to forgo meat. He wrote: Now does not nature produce enough simple food
for thee to satisfy thyself. And if thou art not content with such canst
thou not by the Further evidence of Leonardo's diet is provided by a letter dated 1515 from Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de' Medici about some people called Guzzati, who refused to eat food that contained blood and who had agreed among themselves not to do harm to any living thing, as Corsali wrote: 'Just like our Leonardo da Vinci.' In 1477 Leonardo left Verrocchio's studio and began working independently. Florence at that time represented all that was modern in fifteenth-century Italy and was governed by the top political family, the Medici, whose banking network throughout Europe lent money to other top political families. On the basis of loans of money by the Medici, Edward IV of England (1442-83) won his battles against Henry VI and the Lancastrians and successfully laid the foundations for the Tudor state. Maximilian I (1459- 1519), the Holy Roman Emperor, and his wife Margaret of Burgundy also borrowed heavily - so heavily that they broke the Bruges branch of the Medici bank. Although the Medici were technically private citizens in Florence, during Leonardo's lifetime their influence was at its height; there was hardly anyone in power in Christendom who had not received or was looking forward to financial support from the Medici family. The Medici also contributed considerably to the artistic, literary and philosophical life of the city. Under Cosimo de' Medici, Lorenzo's grandfather, an ecumenical council had been held in Florence in 1438 for the union of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. Although the union did not take place, many Greeks found their way to Florence, bringing with them manuscripts and ideas that were new to western Europe. Cosimo himself financed several trips for scholars to search out treasures from Greece and the Levant. The courts of Italy in the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries were not always peaceful places of artistic and scholarly
activity, however, but were more akin to warring feudal cities. The The smaller Florentine court of the Medici under Lorenzo 'II Magnifico' was dominated by Neoplatonic thought. Lorenzo himself was a poet and philosopher, as well as the founder of the world's first academy of art. According to Anonimo Gaddiano in his Codex Maggliabechiano, Leonardo was set to work in the gardens of the Piazza San Marco where the academy was to be established. In a note on a sheet of calculations and a drawing of a pair of scales, Leonardo mentions the gardens and the work on which he may have been employed: The Labors of Hercules for Piero F.Ginori. Despite Medici rule, Florence was still nominally a republic
and Florentine artists continued to operate the time honored system of
payment for goods produced or services rendered. Leonardo appears to have
been ill-suited to this business-like atmosphere. In the nine years after
his registration with the guild of St Luke, he produced very little saleable
material. In the same year that Leonardo was awarded the San Bernardo commission, Florence was rocked by a conspiracy that eventually dragged the Republic into war and nearly bankrupted the city. The 1478 Pazzi conspiracy involved the Archbishop of Pisa, a mercenary soldier called Montesecco, two priests and the Pope himself, among others. Lorenzo de' Medici had incurred the wrath of the Pontiff by refusing him a loan to buy the town of Imola. Lorenzo had in fact had his eye on the territory for himself, and gave instructions to Francesco de' Pazzi, who was the head of the Pazzi bank in Rome, not to advance the money to Pope Sixtus IV. Pazzi saw his chance to damage the Medicis' standing with the Pope and to advance his own position, however, and instead of following Lorenzo's orders, himself offered the Pope most of the money. The Pope promptly transferred his account from the Medici to the Pazzi bank. Meanwhile Jacopo Pazzi, Francesco's uncle [who lived up to the family name: Pazzi is a corrupt form of 'mad' or 'crazy' and Jacopo was known to hit his opponents over the head if he lost at dice!), gave the final touches to the conspiracy: a double assassination was planned to take place in Florence Cathedral during high mass, the intended victims Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano de' Medici. Although the plot failed, Giuliano was fatally wounded. Lorenzo and some of his followers barricaded themselves in the sacristy for safety and the city was in uproar. To cap it all, mad Jacopo Pazzi galloped into the main square shouting 'People and Liberty!', to which the assembled Florentine crowds supposedly replied, 'Balls!' -meaning, of course, the six golden balls of the Medici coat of arms. Jacopo was forced to flee for his life, and Francesco and some of his co-conspirators were caught and hanged.Lorenzo appeared on the balcony of the Signoria, his neck bandaged against a knife wound sustained in the assault in the Cathedral and called for the jubilant crowds to disperse. It was not the end, however, for the Pope never forgave the Medici for murdering the Archbishop of Pisa. There were also conspirators on the loose. One of them, Bernardo Baroncelli, had escaped to Turkey, but the Sultan obliged Florence the following year by extraditing him and his wife and on 29 December, 1479, the couple were publicly hanged. Leonardo drew Baroncelli hanging from his noose and carefully noted his clothing: A tan colored skull-cap, a doublet of
black serge, a black jerkin, lined and the collar covered with a black
and red stippled velvet. On the day of the conspiracy Leonardo had gone about the city and drawn people's excited faces. It was said that, throughout his career, he would follow a man with an interesting face through the streets, to get his portrait down on paper. Leonardo's inability to fulfil his contractual obligations was already well known and in March 1481, when a commission for the Adoration of the Magi was awarded to him, the friars at the monastery of San Donate a Scopeto drew up a complicated contract pinning Leonardo down to a strict timetable. Even this contract failed to impel Leonardo to work and the commission was eventually awarded to Filippino Lippi. Leonardo's first large group painting, the unfinished Adoration of the Magi gives us a foretaste of the large and complex later works, such as The Last Supper and the Battle ofAnghiari . It is also the earliest of his paintings which can be identified with a specific commission. In 1475 a saddler had made an endowment to the monastery, to provide a painting for the high altar and a dowry for his grand-daughter. Leonardo's father who conveniently was the notary to the monastery and so it may have been through him that Leonardo was awarded the commission in the first place) drew up the contract, which required that the painting be delivered within 24 months with the possibility of an extension of a further six months. Shortly after the contract was agreed and signed,' early in 1481, the monks advanced Leonardo money to buy paints. In July he requested another 28 florins, and between July and September the monks also provided him with firewood, wheat and wine; on 28 September 1481, three monks delivered a barrel of wine to Leonardo's house. Unfortunately for the monks - and for the saddler's grand-daughter, who never got the painting. Soon after the wine was delivered, he left Florence for Milan. What remains of Leonardo's painting is the unfinished panel in the Uffizi and two general compositional sketches. The earlier sketch contains important elements which appear in the painting, including the ruined background architecture of vaults and a staircase, with the stables rising within it, and the figure grouping of the Virgin and Child with the adoring figures to the right. But on the whole the drawing lacks coherence in the relations of the figures to each other and to their architectural setting, with its rather clumsy perspective scheme. The second drawing shows how Leonardo overcame these problems to create a scheme that is more convincing spatially. This he achieved by placing the vanishing point off-center on the horizon line, and by dividing up the ground space according to a scheme devised by the architect Leon Alberti (1404-72), and here shown in the checkerboard floor effect. Despite these reworkings, Leonardo was to diverge from them in the painting itself. In this the stable, which figured so largely in the first drawing, is banished to the right background. This seems to have allowed Leonardo to organize the central space, which accommodates the triangular foreground group of the Virgin, Child and Magi, within a semicircle formed by the accompanying figures. This semicircle thus separates the foreground scene from the background of ruined architecture and battling figures. Some of the elements in the painting were designed to serve as symbolic devices; the classical ruins, for example, may refer to the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome, popularly known as the Temple of Peace. The Romans claimed that the building would stand until a Virgin gave birth, and it fell, according to legend, on the very night of Christ's birth. The tree easily identifiable as a palm is symbolic of peace and victory and also has associations with the Virgin. The phrase 'You are stately as a palm tree' [Song of Solomon VII, 7) is taken to prefigure the Virgin. The other tree has been variously identified as an ilex (the tree which provided the wood for Christ's cross) and a carob (the tree from which Judas hanged himself and which had also provided the 'locusts' or carob pods on which John the Baptist fed himself in the wilderness). This in turn provides further allusions: More difficult to understand are the battling figures in the background of the painting. These appear to have begun life as a pen, ink and wash drawing, the Battle Between Horsemen and Dragon c.1481.They demonstrate Leonardo's penchant for mythical beasts, confirmed by Vasari in his story of Leonardo's painting of a Gorgon's head on a shield, sold to a merchant for 100 ducats. They are also a foretaste of Leonardo's interest in equine compositions, such as the Battle of Anghiari 20 years later. The only other painting which may be dated with any certainty to this first period in Florence is the St Jerome now in the Vatican Museum in Rome. This painting came to light only recently; it was discovered in two pieces in the nine teenth century by Cardinal Fesch, who had been using one of the pieces as a tabletop, which accounts for the damage and subsequent re-touching. Leonardo in fact mentions 'various Jeromes' in his 1482 inventory, but once again work on this painting appears to have been halted before its completion. Some of the underdrawing was completed, including the torso and face of the Saint, while other elements like the church to the right have merely been sketched in. The misty background to the left remains a recognizable Leonardoesque feature, despite its unfinished state.
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